د نړۍ په پرمختګ کې د مسلمانانو ونډه

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1. حلیم وردګ says:

   December 20, 2011 at 7:18 am

   سلام علیکم،

   زما په اند اسلامي نړۍ تر هغه وخته چې د غربي استعمار څخه په امن، آن چې په ډیری غربي ممالکو ېې حکمراني چلوله، د خپلې حکمرانۍ تر څنګ ېې ځنې خدای جتي علما او نوابغ درلودل چې اسلامي تاریخ ېې روښانه ساتلی دی.

   خو کله چې اسلامي نړۍ په تیره بیا عرب قومونه د غرب تر اشغال لاندې په یو او بل نامه راغلل، او په خپل منځي جنګ ونښتل نو د اسلامي نړۍ بدبختي پیل شوه.
   له بله پلوه، اسلامي حکمرانانو هم تر ډیره وخته د علومو او څیړنو په برخه کې پانګونه نه کوله، بلکه د حکومت ټول لګښت به ېې یوازې په جنګې میدان او جنګیالیو کاوه.

   په را وروسته کې چې کله د اسلامي نظام غربیانو د نوي سیستمونو د نصبولو وړاندیزونه په اسلامي ټولنو کې کول،( پدې سره ېې په اصل کې مسلمانان په خپلو کې په جنګ اچول) نو مسلمانان په تیره بیا سخت دریځه خلکو پر خپل مخ د پرمختګ دروازه وتړله. مثالونه ېې ډیر دي، لکه په لمړیو کې مالیزیا، مصر، اندونیزیا،…. او دادی عربستان خو تر ننه پورې پر خپله خبره ولاړ دی. (کفر زما نوکر دی، نو امریکایان د زما تیل اوباسي ماته د نغدې پیسې راکوي، په خوب تر ننه مست خوب کوي)

   یو هسپانوي ملګری مې واېي: موږ په اوروپا کې خوشبخته خلک و چې د مسلمانانو د علمیت څخه برخمن شو، مګر دین زموږ لپاره د منلو نه و (دا خبره ېې کیدای شي د عناد له مخې کړې وي)، دی زیاتوي، موږ په اوروپا کې لمړني خلک و چې د زراعت، او ابرسانۍ پرمختللي سیستمونه د نن ورځې د تکنالوژۍ سره برابر درلودل. – دا زموږ د ډیرو بدبختیو په منځ کې یوه لویه خوشبختي وه (د اسلامي خلافت استعماري).

   خو نن د پرمختګ کاروان بیخي تیز روان دی (کفار خو نر او ښځه شپه او ورځ کار کوي او بس، مسلمانان چې نیمه ورځ ویده وي، نیمه ورځ په خنداګانو او مجلسونو تیروي، او نیمه ورځ بیا خپل فرضونه (چې ضرور دي) ترسره کوي، ښځې خو له سره میلمنې دې، هغوی باید په تکلیف نه شي؛ نو څنګه به پدې کړیدلي حال سره د هغو پرمختللو ملتونو سره سیالي وکړي، کوم چې هره ورځ ېې د دوښمنۍ نارې وهي؟، یا هغوی زموږ کور او کلی راته بمباروي؟؟؟؟؟؟؟

   د اسلامي ویښتابه په هیله

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2. عبدالسمیع نجیمی says:

   March 17, 2011 at 3:24 pm

   انجنیر ندیم الله وحید ته د الله څخه ډیر اجرونه غواړم ډیر په زړه پوری مضمون یی لیکلی دی او همدا حقیقت دی چی مسلمانانو څومره په هر ډګر کی زیار ګاللی دی هم د علم په ډګر کی هم د فنونو او مهارتونو په ډګر کی هم دسیاست په ډګر کی هم د اجتماعی ژوند په ټولو اړوندو چارو کی هم خلکو ته د خدمت په ډکر کی او هم د امنیت راوستلو په ډګر کی هم د عدالت او د بشر د حقوقو او تمدن په ډګر کی خو اوس څه دلیل دی چی په هر څه کی ورسته پاتی دی او د غربی ښکیلاکګرو په لومو کی داسی راګیر دی چی ځان نه شی تری خلاصولی او باالعکس په هر ډکر کی داسی ورسته پاتی شول لکه نور خلک کوم چی په قرون وسطی کی په غربی نړی کی ورسته پاتی وو او اوس هغوی تری نه مخکی شول دوی د ټولو اسلامی هیوادونو باداران شول او اسلامی هیوادونه یی مستعمره شول

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3. financial aid for college says:

   December 6, 2010 at 2:45 pm

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4. physical therapist says:

   November 10, 2010 at 1:26 pm

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5. عبداللطيف قدرزی says:

   October 19, 2010 at 9:44 am

   توريالی صيب ډيره ډيره مننه دې له دې ښکلې او مفصلې تبصرې څخه
   په دې تبصره کې د نورو ډيرو تر څنګ د دوو کسانو نومونه اخيستل شوي چې يو يې ابن سينا، او بل يې ايرانی شاعر عمر خيام دی
   ورورکه، ابن سينا د عقيدې له نظره چټل وو، او عمر خيام يو شهوت پال او لوچک شاعر وو، چې د مسلمانۍ د بيلګې په توګه د دې دواړو يادول ښه کار نه دی، نور ډير پوهان شته، لکه محمد بن موسی چې همدا نن يې هم ټوله نړۍ له هغه مشهور فورمول څخه ګټه اخلي.
   که غواړئ چې په دې هکله ډير معلومات تر لاسه کړئ، د مرحوم استاذ مصطفی سباعی ليکنه: من روائع حضارتنا الاسلاميه چې زاهدي احمدزي پښتو ته ژباړلی او لا هم په بازار کې موندل کيږي، يوه ښه ليکنه ده

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6. توریال says:

   October 19, 2010 at 7:21 am

   Throughout the Qur’an one can find a strong emphasis on the value of knowledge in the Islamic faith. The Qur’an encourages Muslims to learn and acquire knowledge, stemming from, but not limited to, the Muslim emphasis on knowing the unity of God. Because Muslims believe that Allah is all-knowing, they also believe that the human world’s quest for knowledge leads to further knowing of Allah. Muslims must thus pursue knowledge not only of God’s laws, but of the natural world as well, extending the frontiers of human knowledge. Unlike the revealed knowledge of the Qur’an, Muslims believe that human knowledge is not perfect, and requires constant exploration and advancement through research and experimentation. According to the Qur’an, learning and gaining knowledge is the highest form of religious activity for Muslims, and the one which is most pleasing to God.

   In the medieval period of Islam, from about the 9th to the 14th centuries, the Muslims led the world in their pursuit of knowledge. The Islamic world at this time was the most scientifically advanced region of the globe, while also making important contributions in philosophy and literature. Part of the Muslim advantage came from the synthesis of ideas from diverse cultures such as the Greek, Persian, Egyptian, Indian, and Chinese, when the Islamic empire expanded in the 7th and 8th centuries. The Muslims made a priority of translating scholarly books from other cultures into Arabic and using them in developing Muslim ideas. The Muslims took Aristotle’s philosophy, Ptolemy’s geography, Hippocrates’ medicine, as well as Persian and Indian works on astronomy and mathematics, and either added to or contradicted them with new discoveries. Every major Islamic city in medieval times had an extensive library; in Cordoba and Baghdad the libraries claim to have had over 400,000 books.

   Many Muslim ideas were soon transmitted to medieval Europe, and influenced learning there up until the Renaissance. By the 10th century, Europeans recognised Muslim intellectual superiority, and quickly began translating Muslim works in such fields as medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and philosophy from Arabic into Latin, Hebrew, and sometimes vernacular languages as well. By the 13th century, European students were studying at Islamic universities, mostly in Muslim-controlled Spain. Europeans realised that studying in Seville, Cordoba, Toledo, or Granada was the key to acquiring Muslim knowledge. When Latin translations of Muslim books were not completed quickly enough, universities in Toledo, Narbonne, Naples, Bologna, and Paris started teaching Arabic, in order to facilitate reading important scientific works from the Islamic world in their original language.

   Only with the onset of the Renaissance would European knowledge surpass that of the Islamic world, but even then, many European scientists and philosophers simply built on the foundations supplied centuries earlier by Muslim scholars. The Islamic influence on the development of modern science is evident in the many Arabic-based words that remain in the English scientific vocabulary, mostly due to the fact that being unfamiliar with the subject matter, Latin translators were unable to change all words into Latin. Examples include algebra, algorithm, chemistry, alchemy, zircon, atlas, almanac, earth, monsoon, alcohol, elixir, aorta, pancreas, colon, cornea, and diaphragm.

   Proceed to Medicine

   Muslim physicians were responsible for many notable developments in the field of medicine. While European “hospitals” at this time were usually simply monasteries where the sick were told they would live or die according to God’s will, not human intervention, Muslim hospitals pioneered the practices of diagnosis, cure, and future prevention. The first hospital in the Islamic world was built in Damascus in 707, and soon most major Islamic cities had hospitals, in which hygiene was emphasised and healing was a priority. Hospitals were open 24 hours a day, and many doctors did not charge for their services. The medical school at the University of Jundishapur, once the capital of Sassanid Persia, became the largest in the Islamic world by the 9th century. Its location in Central Asia allowed it to incorporate medical practices from Greece, China, and India, as well as developing new techniques and theories.

   Al-Razi, a 9th century Persian physician, made the first major Muslim contribution to medicine when he developed treatments for smallpox and measles. He also made significant observations about hay fever, kidney stones, and scabies, and first used opium as an anaesthetic. A generation later, Ibn Sina earned his place as one of the greatest physicians in the world, with his most famous book used in European medical schools for centuries. He is credited with discovering the contagious nature of diseases like tuberculosis, which he correctly concluded could be transmitted through the air, and led to the introduction of quarantine as a means of limiting the spread of such infectious diseases. Other Muslim physicians accurately diagnosed the plague, diphtheria, leprosy, rabies, diabetes, gout, epilepsy, and hemophilia long before the rest of the world. In the 10th century, Al-Zahravi first conducted surgery for the eye, ear, and throat, as well as performing amputations and cauterisations. He also invented several surgical instruments, including those for the inner ear, the throat, and the urethra.

   Muslims also advanced the field of pharmacology. They experimented with the medical effects of various herbs and other drugs, and familiarised themselves with anaesthetics used in India. There is evidence that some Muslim physicians also adopted the practice of acupuncture from China. Despite many advancements in medicine, however, Muslim physicians still based their work on the idea of the ancient Greek, Galen, that the body was made up of the same four elements as the world in general – earth, air, fire, and water. Contrary to Christian beliefs, Muslim physicians concluded that illness was not due to supernatural forces, but rather to an imbalance in the body’s elements, which physicians were able, in many cases, to correct.

   Proceed to Astronomy

   The medieval Islamic world also made significant advancements in the field of astronomy. Part of the reason for the Muslim interest in astronomy is unique to the Islamic faith, and grew from the Muslim attempt to solve practical problems. Because the Muslim calendar is a lunar calendar, for example, the ability to see, and even predict, the arrival of the new moon was fundamental to marking the beginning and ending of each month. This issue was particularly significant for the month of Ramadan, when fasting is required during the day, and for determining the date of the Hajj, the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. Secondly, the study of astronomy grew out of a need to map the coordinates of the stars, in order to determine the direction of Mecca from any city, because Muslims are required to face that direction when praying.

   These practical concerns for Muslims led to great advancements in astronomy. Observatories were first established in the Islamic world, in major cities such as Baghdad, Hamadan, Toledo, Maragha, Samarkand, and Istanbul, and new instruments were developed. The Muslim invention of the astrolabe, for example, was one of the most important in astronomy until the invention of the telescope in the 17th century. Muslims were also the first astronomers to challenge the long-accepted theories of Ptolemy and Aristotle regarding eclipses, planetary orbits, and the position of the stars. In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist, Ibn al-Haytham, measured the height of the earth’s atmosphere to be the equivalent of about 52 kilometres; today we know it is about 50 kilometres. In the early 14th century, Ibn al-Shatir designed models for the movement of the moon and the planet Mercury, which are very similar to those later done by Copernicus in the 16th century.

   From their work in astronomy, Muslim scientists also developed new methods of time-keeping. 9th century estimates of the length of a solar year and the length of seasons were very close to what we know today, and the Jalali calendar, devised by Omar Khayyam in the 12th century, remains the most accurate calendar ever invented. Similarly, astronomy influenced the field of optics, in which Muslim scientists explained the colors of the sunset, and the process of how rainbows appeared. They also discarded the ancient theory that vision was due to rays of light emanating from the eyes, and proved that vision was instead caused by the reflection of light from the object viewed. Much of the work of Galileo, Copernicus, and Newton during the European Renaissance was influenced by the discoveries of these early Muslim scientists.

   Proceed to Mathematics

   Muslims also made significant advancements in mathematics. Al-Khwarizmi was the first major Muslim mathematician, and he is most famous for introducing the field of algebra into the discipline. He also introduced Arabic numerals to Europe, which replaced Roman numerals in many places by the 11th century and became known as algorithms, derived from his name. Muslims also developed trigonometry as a distinct branch of mathematics. In the 9th century, Al-Batani was the first mathematician to use the concept of sines and cotangents, while Thabit Ibn Qurra studied conics, especially the parabola and ellipse, and helped develop an early form of calculus. Al-Buzjani furthered their work a century later in developing theories of triangles and conics. Geometry as a mathematical science also owes a great deal to Islamic scholars, particularly in linking geometric and algebraic equations. As we saw earlier in this chapter, geometric patterns were a common form of decoration in Islamic art – likely owing to the work done in geometry by Muslim mathematicians.

   Muslim scientists also completed significant work in physics, chemistry, botany, and engineering, in the process of which they developed the “experimental method” used in modern science, in which hypotheses are tested through controlled experiments.

   Proceed to Philosophy

   The Islamic world also produced many great philosophers in the medieval period, and as in other religions, a rift between philosophy and theology soon developed. The debate largely revolved around the nature and existence of Allah, and the legitimacy of the prophecy. Many Muslim philosophers were influenced by the works of Aristotle and Plato, and struggled to apply the principles of these ancient Greeks to the Islamic world. That is not to say, however, that Islamic philosophy would not have developed without the impetus of Greek thought. Muslim philosophers also took ideas from the Qur’an and Hadith as a starting point for pondering philosophical issues.

   At the heart of the debate between philosophy and theology were arguments for faith versus reason. In the event of a conflict between human knowledge and revealed knowledge, the philosophers asked, which should prevail? Muslim philosophers were Muslims first, and philosophers second, however, and their faith in Islam thus led them to recognise that even reason could not be used to fully understand Allah or his knowledge. Still, Al-Farabi and other early Muslim philosophers tried to find rational arguments for the existence of God. Theologians, led by Al-Ghazali, defended religion by pointing out contradictions and limitations to human reason. Ibn Rushd, one of Islam’s greatest philosophers, responded to Al-Ghazali’s argument by urging philosophers to use reason to reach genuine knowledge of the truth, independent of revelation. He attempted to show how Al-Ghazali’s objections to philosophy were based on his misunderstanding of Aristotle’s ideas and their effect on Islamic philosophy.

   This complex debate between philosophy and theology was a major issue during the medieval period of learning in the Islamic world. However, this period also featured free-flowing ideas between the two sides, who prided themselves on being able to construct an argument for their view, rather than simply proclaiming its truth. Although most philosophers and scientists enjoyed royal patronage during the Abbasid period, some philosophers were punished for their writings by caliphs mindful of crushing what they viewed as any opposition to Islam.

   The following eight Muslim scholars are particularly noteworthy for their contributions to learning and knowledge in the medieval Islamic world. Although many were noted for advances in a certain field, they all conducted research and wrote books on a number of different topics, from medicine to philosophy to geography. The eight featured here by no means exhaust the list of notable Islamic scholars; while formidable in their achievements, they represent only a small percentage of all those who helped the medieval Islamic world become the most intellectually advanced region in the world at that time.

   Proceed to Al-Khwarizmi

   Abu Ja’far Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was born in Khwarizm, in present-day Uzbekistan. He thrived in Baghdad under the patronage of the Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mamun, between 813 and 833, during a so-called “Golden Age” of Islamic science. A celebrated mathematician in his own time, as well as many centuries later, Al-Khwarizmi is best known for introducing the concept of algebra into mathematics. The title of his most famous book, Kitab Al-Jabr wa al-Muqabilah (“The Book of Integration and Equation”) in fact provides the origin of the word, algebra. Over the course of his work in mathematics, Al-Khwarizmi introduced the use of Indo-Arabic numerals, which became known as algorithms, a Latin derivative of his name. He also began using the zero as a place-holder, paving the way for the development of the decimal system.

   Al-Khwarizmi’s work had a tremendous influence on mathematics not only in the Islamic world, but in other cultures as well. Several of his books were translated into Latin in the 12th century, and Kitab Al-Jabr wa al-Muqabilah was the principal mathematics textbook in European universities until the 16th century. In addition to his work on mathematics, Al-Khwarizmi also produced tracts on astronomy and geography, many of which were translated into European languages and Chinese. In 830, a team of geographers working under him produced the first map of the known world. Al-Khwarizmi’s scientific accomplishments continue to affect the world today.

   Proceed to Al-Farabi

   Abu’l-Nasr Al-Farabi, a Muslim of Persian descent who studied in Baghdad, was considered in his time to be the greatest philosopher since Aristotle. Indeed, in the Islamic world he was known as the “Second Teacher,” with Aristotle being the first. He was fluent in several languages, and through his translations of ancient Greek works, he was one of the earliest Islamic philosophers to introduce Greek philosophy to the Islamic world. He wrote on numerous subjects, including logic, sociology, political science, medicine, and music, but his legacy lies in his work in philosophy.

   In writing commentaries on the works of the ancient Greeks, Al-Farabi sought to reconcile Aristotelian and Platonian thought with Islamic theology. At the same time, however, he also became the first Islamic philosopher to separate philosophy and theology, influencing scholars of many different religions who followed him. He concluded that human reason, the tool of the philosopher, was superior to revelation, the tool of religion, resulting in the advantage of philosophy over religion. He claimed that philosophy was based on intellectual perception, while religion was based on imagination. He thus attributed impressive characteristics to the philosopher, and advocated the philosopher as the ideal head of state. He blamed political upheavals in the Islamic world to the fact that the state was not run by philosophers, whose superior powers of reason and intellect would result in ideal leadership.

   Al-Farabi’s work greatly influenced the Islamic philosophers who followed him, particularly Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd. It also sparked what would become an ongoing debate between representatives of philosophy and theology, as Islamic thinkers sought to reconcile disparities between the two fields.

   Proceed to Al-Biruni

   Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni, a Persian scholar and scientist, was a contemporary of the great physician Ibn Sina, with whom he is known to have corresponded. With a gift for languages, including Turkish, Persian, Sanskrit, Hebrew, and Arabic, Al-Biruni caught the attention of the Ghaznavid ruler, Mahmud, whose territory included northern India. Mahmud often brought Al-Biruni with him on campaigns to India, where Al-Biruni spent his time studying the language, history, and science of that region. One of his most famous books, Kitab al-Hind (“Book of India”) resulted from these travels. It was such a complete study of India that further works on Indian history written under Akbar 600 years later used it as a base.

   In addition to his work on culture and history, Al-Biruni was also an accomplished scientist. In the field of astronomy, he pioneered the notion that the speed of light was much greater than the speed of sound, observed solar and lunar eclipses, and accepted the theory that the earth rotated on an axis long before anyone else. In geography, he calculated the correct latitude and longitude of many places, and disputed the European Ptolemaic view that Africa stretched infinitely to the south; Al-Biruni insisted it was surrounded by water. In his work on India, Al-Biruni also advanced the controversial view – later proved correct – that the Indus valley was once a sea basin. He also developed a theory for calculating the qibla – the direction of Mecca from any place – which was necessary for Muslims to know in order to face Mecca when praying. In physics, he accurately determined the densities of 18 precious stones and metals; in botany, he observed that flowers have 3, 4, 5, 6, or 8 petals, but never 7 or 9; and he was the first to establish trigonometry as a distinct branch of mathematics. Because of his work in such diverse fields, Al-Biruni is considered to be one of the greatest scientists of all time.

   Proceed to Ibn Sina

   Abu Ali al-Husayn Ibn Abdullah Ibn Sina was born in Bukhara in 980. Sometimes known in the West by the Latin name, Avicenna, this Persian physician became the most famous and influential of all the Islamic philosopher-scientists. He earned royal favour for treating the Kings of Bukhara and Hamadan for ailments other physicians could neither diagnose nor cure. His grave is still maintained in Hamadan, where he died in 1037. Though trained as a physician, Ibn Sina made important contributions to philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, and astronomy. His philosophical encyclopedia, Kitab al-Shifa (“Book of Healing”) brought Aristotelian and Platonian philosophy together with Islamic theology in dividing the field of knowledge into theoretical knowledge (physics, mathematics, and metaphysics) and practical knowledge (ethics, economics, and politics).

   His most enduring legacy, however, was in the field of medicine. His most famous book, Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (“The Canon of Medicine”) is still one of the most important medical books ever written, and served as the medical authority throughout Europe for 600 years. Among the Canon’s contributions to modern medicine was the recognition that tuberculosis is contagious; diseases can spread through water and soil; and a person’s emotional health influences his or her physical health. Ibn Sina was also the first physician to describe meningitis, parts of the eye, and the heart valves, and he found that nerves were responsible for perceived muscle pain. He also contributed to advancements in anatomy, gynecology, and pediatrics. The Canon was translated into Latin in the 12th century, and quickly became the predominant textbook used in European medical schools until the 17th century. It is still used today in Islamic medical schools in Pakistan and India. No other medical book has remained so highly acclaimed for such a long period of time. When the Arabic original was published in Rome in 1593, it became one of the first Arabic books to be produced on the new invention of the printing press. Today, Ibn Sina’s portrait hangs in the main hall of the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Paris.

   Proceed to Omar Khayyam

   Born Ghiyath al-Din Abul Fatah Umar Ibn Ibrahim al-Khayyam in 1044 in Nishapur, a Persian city, Omar Khayyam was a well-known mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and poet. He spent most of his life in Persian intellectual centres such as Samarkand and Bukhara, and enjoyed the favour of the Seljuk sultans who ruled the region.

   Khayyam’s best-known scientific contributions were in algebra and astronomy. His classification of algebraic equations was fundamental to the advancement of algebra as a science, for example, just as his work on the theory of parallel lines was important in geometry. In astronomy, Khayyam’s greatest legacy is a remarkably accurate solar calendar, which he developed when the Seljuk sultan, Malik-Shah Jalal al-Din, required a new schedule for revenue collection. Khayyam’s calendar, called Al-Tarikh-al-Jalali after the sultan, was even more accurate than the Gregorian calendar presently used in most of the world: the Jalali calendar had an error of one day in 3770 years, while the Gregorian had an error of one day in 3330 years. Khayyam measured the length of one year as 365.24219858156 days, which is remarkably accurate. It has since been discovered that the number changes in the 6th decimal place over a person’s lifetime. For comparison of Khayyam’s accuracy, the length of one year at the end of the 19th century was 365.242196 days, and today it is 365.242190. Although the calendar project was cancelled upon Malik-Shah’s death in 1092, the Jalali calendar has survived and is still used in parts of Iran and Afghanistan today.

   A
   Khayyam is also a well-known poet. This is the profession by which he is best-known in the West, often at the expense of his scientific achievements. His fame as a poet in the West has only existed since 1839, however, when Edward Fitzgerald published an English translation of Khayyam’s Rubaiyat (“Quatrains”). It has since become a classic of world literature, and is largely responsible for influencing European ideas about Persian poetry and literature. Because he was known as a scientist in his own time, and his poetry did not surface until 200 years after his death, some doubt whether Khayyam indeed wrote the Rubaiyat. After careful analysis, however, most scholars now agree that he is the author, revealing a philosophical side to Khayyam that few of his contemporaries knew.

   Khayyam’s legacy remains largely in science, however, with his work in geometry so far ahead of its time that it was not used again until Ren� Descartes built upon Khayyam’s theories in 17th century France.

   Proceed to Al-Ghazali

   Abu Hamid al-Ghazali was born in 1058 in the Persian province of Khurasan. He was educated in Islamic theology at renowned institutions in Nishapur and Baghdad, and became a professor in religion and philosophy at Nizamiyah University in Baghdad – one of the Islamic world’s most prominent institutions at that time. In 1095, however, after a period of inner turmoil about his faith, Al-Ghazali left the university, gave up his material possessions, and became a wandering ascetic. He devoted himself to Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam concerned with direct knowledge of God, and travelled to Mecca, Syria, and Jerusalem before returning to Nishapur to write.

   Al-Ghazali’s works on the relationship between philosophy and religion contributed to an ongoing discussion in the Islamic world on how to reconcile the two fields. In adopting the Aristotelian principals of the humanist ancient Greeks, Islamic philosophers since the 9th century, such as Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina, had come into conflict with theologians who claimed that Aristotelian philosophy contradicted Islamic doctrine. Al-Ghazali staunchly defended religion against attack by philosophers, and in doing so helped bridge the gap between the two streams of thought. Al-Ghazali also sought to reign in what he believed were excessive views within Sufism, to bring it more in line with orthodox Islam. He continued to stress the importance of Sufism as the genuine path to absolute truth, but he sought to redefine its extreme image as disobedient to the basic teachings of Islam.

   Al-Ghazali wrote several famous books on these subjects, one of which inspired the philosopher Ibn Rushd to respond with a book of his own, after Al-Ghazali’s death. In Tuhafat al-Falasifa (“The Incoherence of the Philosophers”), Al-Ghazali laid out several arguments as to why philosophy was sometimes heretical to Islam. He particularly objected to arguments made by Greek-influenced philosophers questioning the immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the body, reward and punishment after death, God’s knowledge of all things, and the eternity of the world. Al-Ghazali welcomed the fact that philosophers questioned some tenets of the Islamic faith, but he chastised them for not proving their positions. At the same time, Al-Ghazali was careful not to rebuke everything the philosophers had said. He did not reject discoveries of philosopher-scientists in the natural sciences, freely admitting that many important scientific advancements had been made. He also chastised Muslims who rejected every science connected with the philosophers, in the name of defending religion, claiming that such an approach only led the philosophers to conclude that Islam was based on ignorance. Rather, Al-Ghazali advocated accepting valid scientific achievements, while challenging philosophers to prove their objections to Islamic theology. Ibn Rushd, a devoted Aristotelian philosopher and rationalist, responded to Al-Ghazali’s book with one of his own, Tuhafut al-Tuhafut (“The Incoherence of the Incoherence”), in which he reproduced Al-Ghazali’s book and commented on its arguments, page by page.

   Al-Ghazali is considered one of Islam’s greatest theologians. His arguments influenced Jewish and Christian religious scholarship, and it has been suggested that in the 13th century St. Thomas Aquinas used many of Al-Ghazali’s themes in arguing for the strengthening of Christianity in the West.

   Proceed to Ibn Rushd

   Abu’l Waleed Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Rushd, born in 1126 in Cordoba, then part of Muslim Spain, was one of the greatest thinkers and scientists of the 12th century. Known by the Latin name Averroes in the West, Ibn Rushd influenced scholarship in both the Islamic world and Europe for centuries, and is best known in the West for his commentaries on Aristotle’s philosophy.

   Like many famous scholars before him, Ibn Rushd enjoyed the favour of the royal courts, and spent his time among the ruling class of Marrakesh, Morocco, as well as in the Spanish cities of Seville and Cordoba. Although his views on religion and philosophy occasionally angered his patrons, Ibn Rushd was generally able to continue his study of such a field because of his friendship with the Muslim rulers. He was greatly influenced by Greek philosophy, and he wrote several commentaries on Aristotle’s works. He used Greek arguments for rationalism to question several tenets of Islamic theology, earning the criticism of many Muslim religious scholars, such as Al-Ghazali. Despite his vehement defence of philosophy, however, Ibn Rushd was a devoted Muslim who also tried to integrate Plato’s political views with the modern Islamic state, to bring Greek thought and Islamic traditions into harmony.

   While the Islamic world was split in its support for Ibn Rushd’s philosophical work (and with philosophy in general enjoying less support since Al-Ghazali’s attack on it), he became very popular in Europe. His commentaries on the work of Aristotle and Plato were translated into Latin, English, German, and Hebrew, and were thereafter always included in any editions of the Greek philosophers’ works. The belief that he was more popular in the West than in the Islamic world is also supported by the fact that few of his writings survive in their original Arabic, and many of the ones that do are in Hebrew script. The rest have been preserved only in their Latin or other European vernacular translations.

   In addition to his work in philosophy, Ibn Rushd was also an accomplished physician and astronomer. His famous medical book, Kitab al-Kulyat fi al-Tibb (known as the “Colliget” in Latin) discussed various diagnoses and cures for diseases, as well as their prevention. He was the personal physician to several Almoravid caliphs in Spain and the Maghrib. In astronomy, he wrote tracts on the movement of spheres. Still, Ibn Rushd is best remembered for his philosophy, particularly in Europe, where he influenced scholarship until the 16th century. Many of his books were used in European universities until the 19th century.

   Proceed to Ibn Khaldun

   Abd al-Rahman Ibn Muhammad, known as Ibn Khaldun after an ancestor, is considered to be the founder of modern sociology and philosophy of history. Born in Tunis, where his parents later died of the Black Death in 1349, Ibn Khaldun spent most of his life in North Africa and Spain. He led a very political life, working for a number of royal courts in North Africa, where he was also able to observe the political and social dynamics of court life. These observations would later influence his writings on the history of civilisations.

   Ibn Khaldun’s most famous book is the Muqaddimah (“Introduction”), which he wrote as the first volume of an intended multi-volume world history. In the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun set out his philosophy of history, and his views on how historical material should be analysed and presented. He concluded that civilisations rise and fall, in a cycle, as a result of psychological, economic, environmental, social, as well as political factors. His attention to more than just the political conditions of a civilisation was revolutionary, as he sought to also examine social, religious, and economic factors in explaining world history. He also pioneered the emphasis on relating events to each other through cause and effect, and drawing parallels between past and present, when writing history. He subjected his study of history to objective, scientific analysis, and lamented the clearly biased histories written before him.

   After laying out these and other principles in the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun wrote several histories of the Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Romans, Persians, Egyptians, and Berbers, as well as Muslim and European rulers. He also wrote his autobiography, becoming a leader in that new literary form. His attention to social factors in the rise and fall of civilisations helped to develop the science of social development, known today as sociology. His influence on the fields of sociology and history was tremendous, particularly because his emphasis on reason and rationalism in judging history resulted in a notably non-religious tone to his work.

   Proceed to the Conclusion

   With a few exceptions, such as the 14th century work of Ibn Khaldun, the Golden Age of Islamic learning ended with the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. As they made their way across Central Asia, the Mongols destroyed Muslim libraries, observatories, hospitals, and universities, culminating in the sack of Baghdad, the Abbasid capital and intellectual centre, in 1258. Many scholars perished in the ensuing mass murders. The following era saw a rise in conservatism, as Muslim leaders tried to preserve what remained of their civilisation. Innovative and original ideas were not welcomed the way they had been before the invasion, and philosophy was the first branch of learning to suffer. The sciences soon followed, and by the 16th century the torch of intellectual development had been passed to Europe. Islamic arts did not suffer the same fate from the Mongol invasion as scholarly pursuits. The Mongols kept artisans they deemed useful, and the invasion also opened the Islamic world to artistic influences from China. As we saw earlier in this chapter, many art forms continued to flourish as the Mongol empires gave way to the rise of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires.

   In exploring the history of the Islamic world from its beginnings in the 7th century to the decline of the three Great Empires around 1600, this tutorial examined the major political, military, and cultural events that shaped the first 1000 years of Islamic history. From pre-Islamic Arabia we saw how the Islamic faith began and spread; we saw the Islamicisation of lands stretching from Southeast Asia to Northwest Africa; we saw how the Mongol invasions drastically altered the future of the Islamic world, leading to the rise of three formidable Islamic empires in Turkey, Iran, and India. Finally, we have seen how the Islamic faith influenced a distinct style of art and architecture, and how its adherents led the medieval world in intellectual pursuits. By understanding the origins and early history of this major world religion, we are better equipped to understand the Islamic world in the 18th, 19th, 20th, and especially, the 21st century

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7. عبداللطيف قدرزی says:

   October 17, 2010 at 1:31 pm

   په تيرو وياړل ښه شی دی، مګر له اوسني خوار حالت څخه د وتلو له پاره بسوالی نه کوي، د دې له پاره شپه او ورځ کار کول په کار دي.

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8. ستړی به ته وې says:

   October 17, 2010 at 9:08 am

   عبدالله ناصح علوان ته دې الله له ژباړونکي سره اجر ورکړي چې دومره ښه څیړنه یې کړې وه.
   د لومړي ځل لپاره چې کله مسلمانو علماوو د هارون الرشید په وخت کې ګړۍ (ساعت) جوړ کړ نو د فرانسې پاچا ته یې ولیږلو.
   اروپا دومره ویده او له علم څخه لرې وه چې فکر یې کولو چې د دې ساعت په منځ کې کوم پیری دی او هغه یې ګډوي.
   لا هم په مسلمانانو کې همداسې عالمان شته او الله یې دې نور هم و غوړوي، په طب کې یې احمد زویل یې نمونه دی.
   خو مشکل دا دی چې اسلامي هیوادونو کې د بې امنیتۍ او فقر ډیر سترې ستونزې دی چې الله یې دې ترې خلاص کړي.

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